Leflunomide (original brand name Arava) is an immunosuppressive disease-modifying antirheumatic drug (DMARD),[2] used in active moderate-to-severe rheumatoid arthritis and psoriatic arthritis. It is a pyrimidine synthesis inhibitor that works by inhibiting dihydroorotate dehydrogenase.[3]

Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the DHODHgene on chromosome 16. The protein encoded by this gene catalyzes the fourth enzymatic step, the ubiquinone-mediated oxidation of dihydroorotate to orotate, in de novo pyrimidine biosynthesis. This protein is a mitochondrial protein located on the outer surface of the inner mitochondrial membrane(IMM).[1] Inhibitors of this enzyme are used to treat autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis.[2]

Letrozole 來曲唑
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letrozole

Letrozole (INN, trade name Femara) is an oral non-steroidal aromatase inhibitor for the treatment of hormonally-responsive breast cancer after surgery.
Estrogens are produced by the conversion of androgens through the activity of the aromatase enzyme. Estrogens then bind to an estrogen receptor, which causes cells to divide.
Letrozole is an aromatase inhibitor.
Letrozole prevents the aromatase from producing estrogens by competitive, reversible binding to the heme of its cytochrome P450 unit. The action is specific, and letrozole does not reduce production of mineralo- or corticosteroids.[citation needed]

Levonorgestrel 左炔諾孕酮
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levonorgestrel

Levonorgestrel is a manufactured hormone used in a number of birth control methods.[1] In pill form, sold under the brand name Plan B among others, it is useful within 120 hours as emergency birth control. It becomes less effective the longer after sex and only works before pregnancy has occurred.[1] It is also combined with an estrogen to make combined oral birth control pill.[2] Within an IUD, sold as Mirena among others, it is effective for long term prevention of pregnancy.[1] An implantable form of levonorgestrel is also available in some countries.[3]

Levonorgestrel is an estrane steroid derived from testosterone and is also known as 17α-ethynyl-18-methyl-19-nortestosterone or as 17α-ethynyl-18-methylestr-4-en-17β-ol-3-one. Levonorgestrel (levo=left) is one form of a steroid, norgestrel, that exists in two mirror image left and right forms (see Chirality (chemistry)). It is the hormonally active levorotatory enantiomer of the racemic mixture. It is a gonane progestin derived from 19-nortestosterone.[21]
Its in vitro relative binding affinities at human steroid hormone receptors are: 323% that of progesterone at the progesterone receptor, 58% that of testosterone at the androgen receptor, 17% that of aldosterone at the mineralocorticoid receptor, 7.5% that of cortisol at the glucocorticoid receptor, and <0.02% that of estradiol at the estrogen receptor.[22]
If taken together with drugs that induce the CYP3A4 cytochrome liver enzyme, levonorgestrel may be metabolized faster and may have lower efficacy.[citation needed]

Lidocaine 利多卡因
Lidocaine HCl
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lidocaine

Lidocaine, also known as xylocaine and lignocaine, is a medication used to numb tissue in a specific area and to treat ventricular tachycardia.[3][4] It can also be used for nerve blocks. Lidocaine mixed with a small amount of epinephrine is available to allow larger doses for numbing, and to make it last longer.[4] When used as an injectable, it typically begins working within four minutes and lasts for half an hour to three hours.[4][5] Lidocaine may also be applied directly to the skin for numbing.[4]

Mechanism of action[edit]
Lidocaine alters signal conduction in neurons by blocking the fast voltage-gated Na+ channels in the neuronal cell membrane responsible for signal propagation.[34] With sufficient blockage, the membrane of the postsynaptic neuron will not depolarize and will thus fail to transmit an action potential. This creates the anaesthetic effect by not merely preventing pain signals from propagating to the brain, but by stopping them before they begin. Careful titration allows for a high degree of selectivity in the blockage of sensory neurons, whereas higher concentrations also affect other modalities of neuron signaling.

The same principle applies for this drug's actions in the heart. Blocking sodium channels in the conduction system, as well as the muscle cells of the heart, raises the depolarization threshold, making the heart less likely to initiate or conduct early action potentials that may cause an arrhythmia.[35]

Limaprost Alfadex 利馬前列素 阿法環糊精
https://www.drugs.com/international/limaprost.html
CAS registry number (Chemical Abstracts Service)
0088852-12-4
Chemical Formula : C22-H36-O5
Molecular Weight : 380
Therapeutic Categories : Vasodilator, Prostaglandin analogue.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostaglandin_analogue
Synthetic prostaglandin analogues are molecules which are manufactured to bind to a prostaglandin receptor.
Wider use of prostaglandin analogues is limited by unwanted side effects and their abortive potential.

Linezolid 利奈唑胺
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linezolid

Linezolid is an antibiotic used for the treatment of serious infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria that are resistant to other antibiotics. Linezolid is active against most Gram-positive bacteria that cause disease, including streptococci, vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE), and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).[1] The main uses are infections of the skin and pneumoniaalthough it may be use for a variety of other infections..

The oxazolidinones are protein synthesis inhibitors: they stop the growth and reproduction of bacteria by disrupting translation of messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins in the ribosome. Although its mechanism of action is not fully understood,[90] linezolid appears to work on the first step of protein synthesis, initiation, unlike most other protein synthesis inhibitors, which inhibit elongation.[3][54]

It does so by preventing the formation of the initiation complex, composed of the 30S and 50S subunits of the ribosome, tRNA, and mRNA. Linezolid binds to the 23S portion of the 50S subunit (the center of peptidyl transferase activity),[91] close to the binding sites of chloramphenicol, lincomycin, and other antibiotics. Due to this unique mechanism of action, cross-resistance between linezolid and other protein synthesis inhibitors is highly infrequent or nonexistent.[15][46]

Loxoprofen sodium hydrate 洛索丙芬鈉 水合物
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loxoprofen

Loxoprofen (INN) is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug in the propionic acid derivatives group, which also includes ibuprofen and naproxen among others. 

Mechanism of action[edit]
As most NSAIDs, loxoprofen is a non-selective cyclooxygenase inhibitor, and works by reducing the synthesis of prostaglandins from arachidonic acid.

Lubiprostone 魯比前列酮
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubiprostone

Lubiprostone (rINN, marketed under the trade name Amitiza among others) is a medicationused in the management of chronic idiopathic constipation, predominantly irritable bowel syndrome-associated constipation in women and opioid-induced constipation.

It was initially approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2006. It is very expensive as of 2012.[1]

Mechanism of action[edit]
Lubiprostone is a bicyclic fatty acid derived from prostaglandin E1 that acts by specifically activating ClC-2 chloride channels on the apical aspect of gastrointestinal epithelial cells, producing a chloride-rich fluid secretion. These secretions soften the stool, increase motility, and promote spontaneous bowel movements (SBM).

Symptoms of constipation such as pain and bloating are usually improved within one week, and SBM may occur within one day.

Maxacalcitol Hydrate 馬沙骨化醇 水合物
https://www.medchemexpress.com/DataSheet/Maxacalcitol.html

CAS No.:  103909-75-7, Cat. No.:   HY-32339, MWt:     418.61
Formula: C26H42O4, Purity : >98%, Solubility:     in DMSO > 10 mM
Mechanisms:  Pathways: Vitamin D Related; Target: VD/VDR
Biological Activity: Maxacalcitol (22-Oxacalcitriol) is non-calcemic vitamin D3 analog and ligand of VDR-like receptors.
IC50 value: Target:

Maxacalcitol (22-Oxacalcitriol)suppresses parathyroid hormone (PTH) mRNA expression in vitro and in vivo. Maxacalcitol exhibits similar effects to calcitriol in osteoblast-like cells. Maxacalcitol(22-Oxacalcitriol) inhibits tumor growth of osteosarcoma in vitro in combination with all-trans retinoic acid.

Meclofenamate Sodium 甲氯芬那酸鈉
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meclofenamic_acid

Meclofenamic acid (meclofenamate sodium, brand Meclomen) is a drug used for joint, muscular pain, arthritis and dysmenorrhea.[1] It is a member of the anthranilic acid derivatives (or fenamate) class of NSAID drugs and was approved by the FDA in 1980.[2] Like other members of the class, it is a COX inhibitor and prevents formation of prostaglandins.[3]

Scientists led by Claude Winder from Parke-Davis invented meclofenamate sodium in 1964, along with fellow members of the class, mefenamic acid in 1961 and flufenamic acid in 1963.[4]:718

Patents on the drug expired in 1985[5]:295 and several generics were introduced in the US, but as of July 2015 only Mylan still sold it.[6][7]

It is not widely used in humans as it has a high rate (30-60%) rate of gastrointestinal side effects.[8]:310 As of 2015 the cost for a typical course of medication in the United States is 50 to 100 USD.[9]

Mefenamic Acid 甲芬那酸
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mefenamic_acid

Mefenamic acid is a member of the anthranilic acid derivatives (or fenamate) class of NSAID drugs, and is used to treat mild to moderate pain, including menstrual pain, and is sometimes used to prevent migraines associated with menstruation.[1][2] It is not widely used in the United States due to its side effects.[3][4]:334

Its name derives from its systematic name, dimethylphenylaminobenzoic acid. It was discovered and brought to market by Parke-Davis in the 1960s under brandnames Ponstan, Ponstan Forte, Ponalar, Ponstyl, and Ponstel. It became generic in the 1980s and is available worldwide under many brand names.[5] As of 2015 the cost for a typical course of medication in the United States is more than 200 USD.[6]

Melitracen hydrochloride 米拉明
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melitracen

Melitracen (Adaptol, Dixeran, Melixeran, Thymeol, Trausabun) is a tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) marketed in Europe and Japan by Lundbeck and Takeda, respectively, for the treatment of depression and anxiety.[1][2][3][4] In addition to single drug preparations, it is also available as Deanxit, a combination product containing both melitracen and flupentixol.[5][6][7][8]

The pharmacology of melitracen has not been properly investigated and is largely unknown, but it is likely to act in a similar manner to other TCAs. Indeed, melitracen is reported to have imipramine and amitriptyline-like effects and efficacy against depression and anxiety, though with improved tolerability and a somewhat faster onset of action.[9][10]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tricyclic_antidepressant#PharmacologyThe majority of the TCAs act primarily as serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) by blocking the serotonin transporter (SERT) and the norepinephrine transporter (NET), respectively, which results in an elevation of the synaptic concentrations of these neurotransmitters, and therefore an enhancement of neurotransmission.[20][21] Notably, with the sole exception of amineptine, the TCAs have negligible affinity for the dopamine transporter (DAT), and therefore have no efficacy as dopamine reuptake inhibitors (DRIs).[20] Both serotonin and norepinephrine have been highly implicated in depression and anxiety, and it has been shown that facilitation of their activity has beneficial effects on these mental disorders.[22]

Meloxicam 美洛昔康
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meloxicam

Meloxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) with analgesic and fever reducer effects. It is a derivative of oxicam, closely related to piroxicam, and falls in the enolic acid group of NSAIDs.[2] It was developed by Boehringer-Ingelheim. Meloxicam starts to relieve pain about 30–60 minutes after administration.[3]

Mechanism of action[edit]
Main article: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug

Meloxicam blocks cyclooxygenase (COX), the enzyme responsible for converting arachidonic acid into prostaglandin H2—the first step in the synthesis of prostaglandins, which are mediators of inflammation. Meloxicam has been shown, especially at its low therapeutic doses, selectively to inhibit COX-2 over COX-1.[1]

Meropenem 美羅培南
Meropenem and Sodium Carbonate
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meropenem

Meropenem is an ultra-broad-spectrum antibiotic used to treat a wide variety of infections. It is a β-lactam and belongs to the subgroup of carbapenem, similar to imipenem and ertapenem.

Meropenem was developed by Dainippon Sumitomo Pharma and patented in 1983.[1][2][3] It gained US FDA approval in July 1996. It penetrates well into many tissues and body fluids, including cerebrospinal fluid, bile, heart valve, lung, and peritoneal fluid.[4] It was initially marketed by AstraZeneca under the trade name Merrem.

Mechanism of action[edit]
Meropenem is bactericidal except against Listeria monocytogenes, where it is bacteriostatic. It inhibits bacterial wall synthesis like other β-lactam antibiotics. In contrast to other beta-lactams, it is highly resistant to degradation by β-lactamases or cephalosporinases. In general, resistance arises due to mutations in penicillin-binding proteins, production of metallo-β-lactamases, or resistance to diffusion across the bacterial outer membrane.[5] Unlike imipenem, it is stable to dehydropeptidase-1, so can be given without cilastatin.

Metaxalone 美他沙酮
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaxalone

Metaxalone (marketed by King Pharmaceuticals under the brand name Skelaxin) is a muscle relaxant used to relax muscles and relieve pain caused by strains, sprains, and other musculoskeletal conditions. Its exact mechanism of action is not known, but it may be due to general central nervous system depression. It is considered to be a moderately strong muscle relaxant, with relatively low incidence of side effects. Skelaxin is available in an 800 mg scored tablet. Possible side effects include nausea, vomiting, drowsiness and CNS side effects, such as dizziness, headache, and irritability.

The metabolism of metaxalone involves the liver cytochrome P450 system. Based on the information in the labeling, patients receiving metaxalone therapy and physicians prescribing metaxalone are directed to take precaution when coadministering it with other medications involving the P450 system.[1][2]

Because of potential for side effects, this drug is considered high risk in the elderly. As of 2015 the cost for a typical month of medication in the United States is 100 to 200 USD.[3]

Methocarbamol 甲硫氨醇
Methocarbamol DC 90%
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methocarbamol

Methocarbamol is a central muscle relaxant used to treat skeletal muscle spasms. Under the trade name Robaxin, it is marketed by Actient Pharmaceuticals in the United States and Pfizer in Canada. The mechanism of action of methocarbamol is currently unknown, but may involve the inhibition of carbonic anhydrase.[2] The muscle relaxant effects of methocarbamol are largely attributed to central depressant effects;[3] however, peripheral effects of methocarbamol to prolong muscle refractory period have also been reported.

Methylphenidate Hydrochloride 哌甲酯鹽酸鹽
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylphenidate
 

Metoprolol, marketed under the tradename Lopressor among others, is a selective β1 receptor blocker medication.[3] It is used to treat high blood pressure, chest pain due to poor blood flow to the heart, and a number of conditions involving an abnormally fast heart rate. It is also used to prevent further heart problems after myocardial infarction and to prevent headaches in those with migraines.[3]

It comes in formulations that can be taken by mouth or given intravenously. The medication is often taken twice a day. There is an extended release formulation that is once per day. Metoprolol may be combined with hydrochlorothiazide in a single tablet.[3]

Common side effects include trouble sleeping, feeling tired, feeling faint, and abdominal discomfort.[3]Large doses may cause serious toxicity.[4][5] Risk in pregnancy has not been ruled out.[3][6] It appears to be safe in breastfeeding.[7] Greater care is required with use in those with liver problems or asthma.[3] If stopped this should be done slowly to decrease the risk of further health problems.[3]

Metoprolol was first made in 1969.[8] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system.[9] It is available as a generic drug.[3] In 2013, metoprolol was the 19th most prescribed medication in the United States.[10]

Miconazole Nitrate 咪康唑
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miconazole

Miconazole, sold under the brand name Monistat among others, is a antifungal medication used to treat ring worm, pityriasis versicolor, and yeast infections of the skin or vagina.[1] It is applied to the skin or vagina as a cream or ointment.[1]

Common side effects include itchiness or irritation of the area in which it was applied.[1] Use in pregnancy is believed to be safe for the baby.[2] Miconazole is in the imidazole family of medications. It works by decreasing the ability of fungi to make ergosterol, an important part its cell membrane.[1]

Miconazole was patented in 1968 and approved for medical use in 1971.[3] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system.[4]

Miconazole, itraconazole, and clotrimazole work in a different way, inhibiting synthesis of ergosterol from lanosterol by interfering with 14α-demethylase . Ergosterol is a smaller molecule than lanosterol; it is synthesized by combining two molecules of farnesyl pyrophosphate, a 15-carbon-long terpenoid, into lanosterol, which has 30 carbons. Then, two methyl groups are removed, making ergosterol. The "azole" class of antifungal agents inhibit the enzyme that performs these demethylation steps in the biosynthetic pathway between lanosterol and ergosterol.

Mifepristone 米非司酮
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mifepristone

Mifepristone, also known as RU-486, is a medication typically used with misoprostol to bring about an abortion.[1] This combination is more than 95% effective during the first 50 days of pregnancy. It is also effective in the second trimester of pregnancy.[2][3] Two weeks after use effectiveness should be verified. It is taken by mouth.[1]

Pharmacology[edit]
It is a synthetic, steroidal antiprogestogen (IC50 = 0.025 nM for the PR), as well as an antiglucocorticoid (IC50 = 2.2 nM for the GR) and antiandrogen (IC50 = 10 nM for the AR) to a much lesser extent.[32] It is a 19-norsteroid with substitutions at positions C11 and C17 (17β-hydroxy-11β-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-17α-(1-propynyl)estra-4,9-dien-3-one), which antagonizes cortisol action competitively at the receptor level.[33]Mifepristone is a low-efficacy partial agonist of the progesterone receptor. It is also a glucocorticoid receptor antagonist to a lesser extent.

In the presence of progesterone, mifepristone acts as a competitive progesterone receptor antagonist (in the absence of progesterone, mifepristone acts as a partial agonist). Mifepristone is a 19-nor steroid with a bulky p-(dimethylamino)phenyl substituent above the plane of the molecule at the 11β-position responsible for inducing or stabilizing an inactive receptor conformation and a hydrophobic 1-propynyl substituent below the plane of the molecule at the 17α-position that increases its progesterone receptor binding affinity.[34][35][36]

Miltefosine 米替福新
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miltefosine

Miltefosine, sold under the trade name Impavido among others, is a medication mainly used to treat leishmaniasis and free-living amoeba infections such as Naegleria fowleri.[1] This includes leishmaniasis of the cutaneous, visceral, and mucosal types.[3] It may be used together with liposomal amphotericin B or paromomycin.[4] It is taken by mouth.[3]

Common side effects include vomiting, abdominal pain, fever, headaches, and decreased kidney function. More severe side effects may include Stevens-Johnson syndrome or low blood platelets. Use during pregnancy appears to cause harm to the baby and use during breastfeeding is not recommended. How it works is not entirely clear.[1]

Miltefosine was first made in the early 1980s and studied as a treatment for cancer.[5] A few years later it was found to be useful for leishmaniasis and was approved for this use in 2002 in India.[6] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system.[7] In the developing world a course of treatment costs 65 to 150 USD. In the developed world treatment may be 10 to 50 times greater.[4]

Mechanism of action[edit]
Miltefosine primarily acts on Leishmania by affecting the species promastigote and amastigote stages.[23] Miltefosine exerts its activity by interacting with lipids, inhibiting cytochrome c oxidase and causing apoptosis-like cell death.[24] This may affect membrane integrity and mitochondrial function of the parasite.

Misoprostol 米索前列醇
Misoprostol 1％ HPMC Dispersion
Misoprostol-HPMC 1% Dispersion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol

Misoprostol, sold under the brandname Cytotec among others, is a medication used to start labor, cause an abortion, prevent and treat stomach ulcers, and treat postpartum bleeding due to poor contraction of the uterus.[1] For abortions it is often used with mifepristone or methotrexate.[2] By itself effectiveness for this purpose is between 66% and 90%.[3] It is taken either by mouth, under the tongue, or placed in the vagina.[2][4]

Common side effects include diarrhea and abdominal pain. It is pregnancy category X meaning that it is known to result in negative outcomes for the baby if taken during pregnancy. Uterine rupture may occur. It is a prostaglandin analogue — specifically, a synthetic prostaglandin E1 (PGE1).[1]

Misoprostol was developed in 1973.[5] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system.[6] It is available as a generic medication.[1] The wholesale cost in the developing world is about 0.36 to 2.00 USD a dose.[7] A months supply to treat stomach ulcers in the United States is between 100 and 200 USD.[8] The same costs between 30 and 55 EUR in Europe.[9]

Montelukast Sodium 孟魯司特鈉
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montelukast

Montelukast (trade name Singulair) is a leukotriene receptor antagonist (LTRA) used for the maintenance treatment of asthma and to relieve symptoms of seasonal allergies.[2][3] Montelukast comes as a tablet, a chewable tablet, flash tablet and granules to take by mouth.[4] Montelukast is usually taken once a day with or without food.[4] Montelukast is a CysLT1 antagonist; it blocks the action of leukotriene D4 (and secondary ligands LTC4 and LTE4) on the cysteinyl leukotriene receptor CysLT1 in the lungs and bronchial tubes by binding to it. This reduces the bronchoconstriction otherwise caused by the leukotriene and results in less inflammation.

Because of its mechanism of action, it is not useful in the treatment of acute asthma attacks.

Another leukotriene receptor antagonist is zafirlukast (Accolate). Zileuton (Zyflo), an asthma drug, blocks leukotriene synthesis by inhibiting 5-lipoxygenase, an enzyme of the eicosanoid synthesis pathway.[5]

The Mont in Montelukast stands for Montreal, the place where Merck developed the drug.[6]

Mupirocin 莫匹羅星
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mupirocin

Mupirocin, sold under the brand name Bactroban among others, is an antibiotic useful against superficial skin infections such as impetigo or folliculitis.[1][2] It may also be used to get rid of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) when present in the nose without symptoms.[1] Due to concerns of developing resistance, use for greater than ten days is not recommended.[2] It is used as a cream or ointment applied to the skin.[1]

Common side effects include itchiness and rash at the site of application, headache, and nausea. Long term use may result in increased growth of fungi. Use during pregnancy and breastfeeding appear to be safe.[1] Mupirocin is in the carbolic acid class of medications.[3]It works by blocking the making of protein by the bacterial which usually results in bacterial death.[1]

Mupirocin was initially isolated in 1971 from Pseudomonas fluorescens.[4] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system.[5]

Mechanism of action[edit]
Mupirocin reversibly binds to the isoleucyl t-RNA synthetase in Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus, resulting in inhibition of protein synthesis. DNA and cell wall formation are also negatively impacted to a lesser degree.[15] The inhibition of RNA synthesis was shown to be a protective mechanism in response to a lack of one amino acid, isoleucine.[16] In vivo studies in Escherichia coli demonstrated that pseudomonic acid inhibits isoleucine t-RNA synthetase (IleRS).[8] This mechanism of action is shared with furanomycin, an analog of isoleucine.[17]

Mycophenolate mofetil 黴酚酸酯
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycophenolic_acid

Mycophenolic acid, less accurately called mycophenolate, is an immunosuppressant drug used to prevent rejection in organ transplantation. It inhibits an enzyme needed for the growth of T cells and B cells. It was initially marketed as the prodrug mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) to improve oral bioavailability. More recently, the salt mycophenolate sodium has also been introduced. Mycophenolate mofetil is marketed under the trade name CellCept and mycophenolate sodium as Myfortic.

Discovered by an Italian medical scientist Bartolomeo Gosio in 1893, mycophenolic acid was the first antibiotic to be synthesised in pure and crystalline form. But its medical application was forgotten until two American scientists C.L. Alsberg and O.M. Black resynthesised it in 1912, and gave its chemical name. It was eventually found to be a broad-spectrum acting drug having antiviral, antifungal, antibacterial, anticancer, and antipsoriasis properties.[3] The clinically usable drug Cellcept was developed by South African geneticist Anthony Allison and his wife Elsie M. Eugui. It was first approved by the US Food and Drug Administration on 3 May 1995 for use in kidney transplantation.[4]

Naftopidil 萘夫地爾
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naftopidil

Naftopidil (INN, marketed under the brand name Flivas) is a drug used in benign prostatic hypertrophy which acts as a selective α1-adrenergic receptor antagonist or alpha blocker.[1]

Nicametate Citrate 枸橼酸烟胺乙酯https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Nicametate_citrate#section=Top

Chemical Names: Nicametate citrate; Euclidan
Molecular Formula: C18H26N2O9,
Molecular Weight: 414.411 g/mol
Vasodilator Agents: Drugs used to cause dilation of the blood vessels.

Nicotinamide 煙酰胺
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide

Nicotinamide, (/ˌnɪkəˈtɪnəmaɪd/) also known as niacinamide,[2][3] NAA, and nicotinic amide, is the amide of nicotinic acid (vitamin B3 / niacin).[2][3] Nicotinamide is a water-soluble vitamin and is part of the vitamin B group. Nicotinic acid, also known as niacin, is converted to nicotinamide in vivo, and, though the two are identical in their vitamin functions, nicotinamide does not have the same pharmacological and toxic effects of niacin, which occur incidental to niacin's conversion. Thus nicotinamide does not reduce cholesterol or cause flushing,[4] although nicotinamide may be toxic to the liver at doses exceeding 3 g/day for adults.[5] In cells, niacin is incorporated into nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), although the pathways for nicotinic acid amide and nicotinic acid are very similar. NAD+ and NADP+ are coenzymes in a wide variety of enzymatic oxidation-reduction reactions.[6] Commercial production of niacin and niacinamide (several thousand tons annually) is by hydrolysis or aminolysis of 3-cyanopyridine (nicotinonitrile).[7]
Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth is one known cause of nicotinamide deficiency.

Olopatadine HCl 奧洛他定
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olopatadine

Olopatadine hydrochloride is an antihistamine (as well as anticholinergic and mast cell stabilizer), sold as a prescription eye drop manufactured by Alcon in one of three strengths: 0.7% solution or Pazeo in the US, 0.2% solution or Pataday (also called Patanol S in some countries), and 0.1% or Patanol (also called Opatanol in some countries). It is used to treat itching associated with allergic conjunctivitis (eye allergies). A decongestant nasal spray formulation is sold as Patanase, which was approved by the FDA on April 15, 2008.[1] It is also available as an oral tablet in Japan under the tradename Allelock, manufactured by Kyowa Hakko Kogyo.[2]

It should not be used to treat irritation caused by contact lenses. The usual dose for Patanol is 1 drop in each affected eye 2 times per day, with 6 to 8 hours between doses. Both Pazeo and Pataday are dosed 1 drop in each eye daily.

There is potential for Olopatadine as a treatment modality for steroid rebound (red skin syndrome).[3]

Olopatadine was developed by Kyowa Hakko Kogyo.[4]

Omeprazole 奧美拉唑
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omeprazole

Omeprazole, sold under the brand names Prilosec and Losec among others, is a medication used in the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease, peptic ulcer disease, and Zollinger–Ellison syndrome.[1] It is also used to prevent upper gastrointestinal bleeding in people who are at high risk.[1] It can be taken by mouth or injected into a vein.[1][4]

Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, headaches, and increased intestinal gas. Serious side effects may include Clostridium difficile colitis, an increased risk of pneumonia, an increased risk of bone fractures, and the potential of masking stomach cancer. It is unclear if it is safe for use in pregnancy. Omeprazole is a proton pump inhibitor and as such blocks the release of stomach acid.[1]

Omeprazole was discovered in 1979.[5] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system.[6] It is available as a generic medication.[1]

Ondansetron HCl 昂丹司瓊
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ondansetron

Ondansetron, marketed under the brand name Zofran, is a medication used to prevent nausea and vomiting caused by cancer chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or surgery.[1] It is also useful in gastroenteritis.[2][3] It has little effect on vomiting caused by motion sickness.[4] It can be given by mouth, by injection into a muscle or into a vein.[1]

Common side effects include diarrhea, constipation, headache, sleepiness, and itchiness. Serious side effects include QT prolongation and severe allergic reaction. It appears to be safe during pregnancy but has not been well studied in this group. It is a serotonin 5-HT3 receptor antagonist.[1] It does not have any effect on dopamine receptors or muscarinic receptors.[5]

Ondansetron was first used medically in 1990.[6] It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system.[7] It is available as a generic medication.[1] The wholesale cost of the injectable form in the developing world is about 0.10 to 0.76 USD per dose.[8] In the United States it costs about 1.37 USD per tablet.[1]

Orciprenaline Sulphate 奧西那林
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orciprenaline

Orciprenaline (INN), also known as metaproterenol (USAN), is a bronchodilator used in the treatment of asthma.[1][2] Orciprenaline is a moderately selective β2 adrenergic receptor agonist that stimulates receptors of the smooth muscle in the lungs, uterus, and vasculature supplying skeletal muscle, with minimal or no effect on α adrenergic receptors. The pharmacologic effects of β adrenergic agonist drugs, such as orciprenaline, are at least in part attributable to stimulation through β adrenergic receptors of intracellular adenylyl cyclase, the enzyme which catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cAMP. Increased cAMP levels are associated with relaxation of bronchial smooth muscle and inhibition of release of mediators of immediate hypersensitivity from many cells, especially from mast cells.

Orlistat 奧利司他
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlistat

Orlistat is a drug designed to treat obesity. It is marketed as a prescription drug under the trade name Xenical by Roche in most countries, and is sold over-the-counter as Alli[2] by GlaxoSmithKline in the United Kingdom and the United States.[3] Its primary function is preventing the absorption of fats from the human diet by acting as a lipase inhibitor, thereby reducing caloric intake. It is intended for use in conjunction with a healthcare provider-supervised reduced-calorie diet.[4]

Orlistat is the saturated derivative of lipstatin, a potent natural inhibitor of pancreatic lipases isolated from the bacterium Streptomyces toxytricini.[5] However, due to its relative simplicity and stability, orlistat was chosen over lipstatin for development as an anti-obesity drug.[6]

Oteracil Potassium 氧嗪酸鉀https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tegafur/gimeracil/oteracil


Tegafur/gimeracil/oteracil
The combination drug tegafur/gimeracil/oteracil (trade name Teysuno, and TS-1 in Japan[1]), also known as S-1,[2] is used for the treatment of advanced gastric cancer.[3] It is labelled for use in combination with cisplatin in many European countries, and for head and neck cancer, colorectal cancer, non–small-cell lung, breast, pancreatic, and biliary tract cancers in several countries in Asia.[4]:213 It has not been approved by the FDA.[4]:213

It is also being developed for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma.[5] and has activity in esophageal,(Perry Chapter 33) breast,[citation needed] cervical,[citation needed] and colorectal cancer.[6]

Mechanism of action[edit]
Tegafur is the actual chemotherapeutic agent. It is a prodrug of the active substance fluorouracil (5-FU).

Gimeracil inhibits the degradation of fluorouracil by reversibly blocking a dehydrogenase enzyme. This results in higher 5-FU levels and a prolonged half-life of the substance.

Oteracil mainly stays in the gut because of its low permeability, where it reduces the production of 5-FU by blocking the enzyme orotate phosphoribosyltransferase. Lower 5-FU levels in the gut result in a lower gastrointestinal toxicity.

Oxazolam 噁唑崙
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxazolam

Oxazolam is a drug that is a benzodiazepine derivative. It has anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative, and skeletal muscle relaxant properties. It is a prodrug for desmethyldiazepam.[1]

Oxethazaine 奧昔卡因
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxetacaine

Oxetacaine (INN, also known as oxethazaine) is a potent local anesthetic. It is administered orally (usually in combination with an antacid) for the relief of pain associated with peptic ulcer disease or esophagitis. It is also used topically in the management of hemorrhoid pain. Oral oxetacaine preparations are available in several countries, including India, South Africa, Japan and Brazil, but not the United States.
Unlike most local anesthetics, oxetacaine does not break down under strongly acidic conditions.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_anesthetic
Mechanism of action[edit]
All LAs are membrane-stabilizing drugs; they reversibly decrease the rate of depolarization and repolarization of excitable membranes (like nociceptors). Though many other drugs also have membrane-stabilizing properties, not all are used as LAs (propranolol, for example). LA drugs act mainly by inhibiting sodium influx through sodium-specific ion channels in the neuronal cell membrane, in particular the so-called voltage-gated sodium channels. When the influx of sodium is interrupted, an action potential cannot arise and signal conduction is inhibited. The receptor site is thought to be located at the cytoplasmic (inner) portion of the sodium channel. Local anesthetic drugs bind more readily to sodium channels in an activated state, thus onset of neuronal blockade is faster in rapidly firing neurons. This is referred to as state-dependent blockade.

LAs are weak bases and are usually formulated as the hydrochloride salt to render them water soluble. At a pH equal to the protonated base's pKa, the protonated (ionized) and un-protonated (unionized) forms of the molecule exist in equal molar amounts, but only the un-protonated base diffuses readily across cell membranes. Once inside the cell, the local anesthetic will be in equilibrium, with the formation of the protonated (ionized form), which does not readily pass back out of the cell. This is referred to as "ion-trapping". In the protonated form, the molecule binds to the LA binding site on the inside of the ion channel near the cytoplasmic end. Most LAs work on the internal surface of the membrane - the drug has to penetrate the cell membrane, which is achieved best in the non-ionized form.

Paclitaxel 紫杉醇
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paclitaxel

Paclitaxel (PTX), sold under the brand name Taxol among others, is a chemotherapy medication used to treat a number of types of cancer. This includes ovarian cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, Kaposi sarcoma, cervical cancer, and pancreatic cancer. It is given by injection into a vein.[2] There is also an albumin bound formulation.[2]

Common side effects include hair loss, bone marrow suppression, numbness, allergic reactions, muscle pains, and diarrhea. Other serious side effects include heart problems, increased risk of infection, and lung inflammation. Use during pregnancy may result in harm to the baby.[2] Paclitaxel is in the taxane family of medications.[3] It works by interference with the normal function of microtubules during cell division.[2]

Paclitaxel was first isolated in 1971 from the Pacific yew and approved for medical use in 1993.[4][5] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most important medication needed in a basic health system.[6] The wholesale cost in the developing world is about 7.06 to 13.48 USD per 100 mg vial.[7] This amount in the United Kingdom costs the NHS about 66.85 pounds.[8] It is now manufactured by cell culture.[5]

Mechanism of action[edit]

Paclitaxel is one of several cytoskeletal drugs that target tubulin. Paclitaxel-treated cells have defects in mitotic spindle assembly, chromosome segregation, and cell division. Unlike other tubulin-targeting drugs such as colchicine that inhibit microtubule assembly, paclitaxel stabilizes the microtubule polymer and protects it from disassembly. Chromosomes are thus unable to achieve a metaphase spindle configuration. This blocks the progression of mitosis and prolonged activation of the mitotic checkpoint triggers apoptosis or reversion to the G-phase of the cell cycle without cell division.[18][19]

The ability of paclitaxel to inhibit spindle function is generally attributed to its suppression of microtubule dynamics,[20] but recent studies have demonstrated that suppression of dynamics occurs at concentrations lower than those needed to block mitosis. At the higher therapeutic concentrations, paclitaxel appears to suppress microtubule detachment from centrosomes, a process normally activated during mitosis.[21]Paclitaxel binds to beta-tubulin subunits of microtubules.[22]

p-Aminomethylbenzoic acid 對氨基甲基苯甲酸https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aminomethylbenzoic_acid

Aminomethylbenzoic acid (more precisely, 4-aminomethylbenzoic acid or p-aminomethylbenzoic acid, PAMBA) is an antifibrinolytic.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antifibrinolytic
Antifibrinolytics, such as aminocaproic acid (ε-aminocaproic acid) and tranexamic acid are used as inhibitors of fibrinolysis.[1] These lysine-like drugs interfere with the formation of the fibrinolytic enzyme plasmin from its precursor plasminogen by plasminogen activators (primarily t-PA and u-PA) which takes place mainly in lysine rich areas on the surface of fibrin. These drugs block the binding sites of the enzymes or plasminogen respectively and thus stop plasmin formation.

They are used in menorrhagia and bleeding tendency due to various causes. Their application may be beneficial in patients with hyperfibrinolysis because they arrest bleeding rapidly if the other components of the haemostatic system are not severely affected. This may help to avoid the use of blood products such as fresh frozen plasma (FFP) with its associated risks of infections or anaphylactic reactions.

In 2010, the CRASH-2 trial showed that the antifibrinolytic drug tranexamic acid safely reduces mortality in bleeding trauma patients.[2]

The antifibrinolytic drug aprotinin was abandoned after identification of major side effects, especially on kidney.

The indication for use of antifibrinolytic drugs is made with various methods. The most rapid and suitable one is thromboelastometry (TEM) in whole blood, which is even possible in patients on heparin. With various assays, an enhanced fibrinolysis becomes visible in the curve signature (TEMogram) and from the calculated values, e.g. the maximum lysis parameter. A special test for the identification of increased fibrinolysis (APTEM) compares the TEM in the absence or presence of the fibrinolysis inhibitor aprotinin. In severe cases of activated fibrinolysis, this assay confirms the syndrome already in less than 15 min during the early phases of clot formation [3]

Paricalcitol 帕立骨化醇
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paricalcitol

Paricalcitol (chemically it is 19-nor-1,25-(OH)2-vitamin D2. Marketed by Abbott Laboratories under the trade name Zemplar) is a drug used for the prevention and treatment of secondary hyperparathyroidism (excessive secretion of parathyroid hormone) associated with chronic renal failure. It is an analog of 1,25-dihydroxyergocalciferol, the active form of vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol).
Mechanism of action[edit]
Like 1,25-dihydroxyergocalciferol, paricalcitol acts as an agonist at the vitamin D receptor and thereby lowers parathyroid hormone levels in the blood.[1]

Pazopanib Hydrochloride 鹽酸帕唑帕尼
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pazopanib

Pazopanib (trade name Votrient) is a potent and selective multi-targeted receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor that blocks tumour growth and inhibits angiogenesis. It has been approved for renal cell carcinoma and soft tissue sarcoma by numerous regulatory administrations worldwide.[3][4][5][6]
Mechanism of action[edit]
It is a multikinase inhibitor, with c-KIT, FGFR, PDGFR and VEGFR being amongst the inhibited enzymes.[2][12][15][16][17][18]

Pemetrexed Disodium Hemipentahydrate 培美曲塞半水合二鈉
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemetrexed