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管理 Management
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management
For other uses, see Management(disambiguation).
管理對於其他用途, 見管理(消除歧見)
Management in business and organizations means to coordinate the efforts of
people to accomplish goals and objectives using available resources efficiently
and effectively.
Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and
controlling an organization or initiative to accomplish a goal.
Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources,
financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources.
Since organizations can be viewed as systems, management can also be defined as
human action, including design, to facilitate the production of useful outcomes
from a system.
This view opens the opportunity to 'manage' oneself, a prerequisite to
attempting to manage others.
在業務和組織裏, 管理的意義是協調人民們的努力, 能夠有效率及效果地利用可取得的資源, 以完成目的和目標.
管理包括計劃, 組織, 人員配備, 領導, 指導和控制一個組織或原發單位, 以完成一個目標. 資源運作包括人力資源, 財務資源,
技術資源和自然資源的部署和操作.
由於組織可以被看作是一個系統, 管理也可以被定義作為人的行動, 包括設計, 使能一個系統能產生有用的結果.
這個觀點開啟了管理自己的機會, 一個試圖管理他人的先決條件.
Contents
內容
1 Etymology
詞源
2 Definitions
定義
2.1 Theoretical scope
理論範圍
3 Nature of managerial work
管理工作的本質
4. Historical development
歷史發展
4.1 Early writing 早期的著作
4.2 19th century
19世紀
4.3 20th century
20世紀
4.4 21st century
21世紀
5 Topics
主題
5.1 Basic functions
基本功能
5.2 Basic roles
基本角色
5.3 Management skills
管理技能
5.4 Formation of the business policy
業務政策的形成
5.4.1 Implementation of policies and strategies
政策和策略的實施
5.4.2 Policies and strategies in the planning process
政策和策略規劃過程
5.5 Levels of management
管理水平
5.5.1 Top-level managers
頂層管理者
5.5.2 Middle-level managers
中層管理人員
5.5.3 First-level managers 第一級經理
6 See also
參見
7 References
參考
8 External links
外部鏈接
Etymology 詞源
The verb 'manage' comes from the Italian maneggiare (to handle, especially
tools), which derives from the Latin word manus (hand).
The French word mesnagement (later ménagement) influenced the development in
meaning of the English word management in the 17th and 18th centuries.[1]
"管理" 這個動詞來自意大利 maneggiare(來處理, 尤其是工具), 它是從拉丁字 manus(手)而來的. 在17世紀和18世紀,
法語的單字mesnagement(後來的ménagement) 影響了英語單字management 的意義的發展.
Definitions 定義
Views on the definition and scope of management include:
Management defined as the organization and coordination of the activities of an
enterprise in accordance with certain policies and in achievement of clearly
defined objectives.
Fredmund Malik defines as Management is the transformation of resources into
utility.
Management included as one of the factors of production - along with machines,
materials and money.
Peter Drucker (1909–2005) sees the basic task of a management as twofold:
marketing and innovation.
管理的定義和範圍的觀點包括：
管理被定義為企業為了依照特定的政策和為了達成明確訂定的目標, 所從事的組織和協調等活動.
Fredmund Malik 將管理定義為是把資源變成效用的轉化. 管理被包括為生產的因素之一---與機器, 材料和金錢.
Peter Drucker (1909-2005) 認為管理的基本任務是雙重的: 營銷和創新.
Nevertheless, innovation is also linked to marketing (product innovation is a
central strategic marketing issue).
Peter Drucker identifies marketing as a key essence for business success, but
management and marketing are generally understood[by whom?] as two different
branches of business administration knowledge.
Directors and managers should have the authority and responsibility to make
decisions to direct an enterprise when given the authority[citation needed]
As a discipline, management comprises the interlocking functions of formulating
corporate policy and organizing, planning, controlling, and directing a firm's
resources to achieve a policy's objectives
此外, 創新也與營銷連結在一起. (產品創新是一項核心的策略營銷議題)
Peter Drucker指出營銷是事業成功的關鍵要素, 但管理和營銷通常被理解為企業管理知識的兩個不同的分支.
當被授予權力, 董事和經理即具有權力和責任做決策以指揮企業. 作為一門學科, 管理, 是由制定公司政策和組織, 規劃,
控制和指導企業的資源以實現政策目標等的環環相扣的功能所組成的.
The size of management can range from one person in a small firm to hundreds or
thousands of managers in multinational companies.
In large firms, the board of directors formulates the policy that the chief
executive officer implements.[2]
管理的大小範圍可以從一個人在一家小公司到數百或數千經理的跨國公司.
在大團體裏, 董事會制定由首席執行長進行的政策.
Theoretical scope 理論的範圍:
Management involves the manipulation of the human capital of an enterprise to
contribute to the success of the enterprise.
This implies effective communication: an enterprise environment (as opposed to a
physical or mechanical mechanism), implies human motivation and implies some
sort of successful progress or system outcome.
As such, management is not the manipulation of a mechanism (machine or automated
program), not the herding of animals, and can occur in both a legal as well as
illegal enterprise or environment.
Based on this, management must have humans, communication, and a positive
enterprise endeavor.
管理涉及企業的人力資本的操縱, 以對於企業的成功做出貢獻.
這意味著有效的溝通：企業環境（而不是物理或機械機構）意味著人的動機, 以及暗示著某種成功的進展或系統成果.
因此, 管理並非是一種機制的操作(機器或自動程序), 不是動物的放牧, 而且可以發生在合法以及非法兩者的企業或環境.
在此基礎上, 管理層須有人, 溝通, 以及積極的企業的努力.
Plans, measurements, motivational psychological tools, goals, and economic
measures (profit, etc.) may or may not be necessary components for there to be
management.
At first, one views management functionally, such as measuring quantity,
adjusting plans, meeting goals. This applies even in situations where planning
does not take place.
From this perspective, Henri Fayol (1841–1925)[3] considers management to
consist of six functions:
規劃, 測量, 心理激勵工具, 目標和經濟措施(利潤等) 可能是, 也可能不是要達到一定管理程度的必要組件.
首先, 人們看的是管理功能, 如測量數量, 調整計劃, 達到目標. 這甚至適用於在計劃並沒有發生的情況下.
從這個角度來看, Henri Fayol ( 1841年至1925年) [ 3 ]認為管理包括六大功能：
forecasting 預測
planning 規劃
organizing 組織
commanding 司令
coordinating 協調
controlling 控制
Fayol was one of the most influential contributors to modern concepts of
management.
In another way of thinking, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), defined management
as "the art of getting things done through people".
She described management as philosophy.[4]
Some people[which?], however, find this definition useful but far too narrow.
The phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely, suggesting the
difficulty of defining management, the shifting nature of definitions and the
connection of managerial practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or
class.
Fayol 是對於現代管理理念最有影響力的貢獻者之一.
在另一種思維方式裏, Mary Parker Follett (1868-1933), 定義管理為 "把事情通過人來完成的藝術", 她描述管理為哲學理念.
不過, 有些人發現這個定義是有用但過於狹窄. 短語“管理是管理者所做的事”廣泛地發生, 提示了定義管理的難度, 定義的轉移本質,
以及存在於管理幹部或階層的管理實務的連接.
One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to "business
administration" and thus excludes management in places outside commerce, as for
example in charities and in the public sector.
More broadly,every organization must manage its work, people, processes,
technology, etc. to maximize effectiveness.
Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments that teach management
as "business schools". Some institutions (such as the Harvard Business School)
use that name while others (such as the Yale School of Management) employ the
more inclusive term "management".
English speakers may also use the term "management" or "the management" as a
collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example of a
corporation. Historically this use of the term often contrasted with the term
"Labor" - referring to those being managed.
有一個思想的習慣是將管理視為等同於"工商管理", 因此將管理排除了商業以外的地方, 例如在慈善機構和公共部門.
更廣泛地說, 每一個組織都必須管理它的工作, 人員, 流程, 技術等, 以發揮最大的效益. 儘管如此, 很多人把教管理的大學科系稱為"商學院".
一些機構(如哈佛商學院), 使用該名稱, 而其他 (如耶魯大學管理學院)採用更具包容性的術語"管理".
講英語的人也可以使用"management" or "the management" 作為一個集體單詞, 以描述一個組織的管理者, 例如一家公司. 歷史上,
此用語的使用, 經常用來與＂勞動”一詞對比 - 指的是那些被管理者.
Nature of managerial work 管理工作的本質
In for-profit work, management has as its primary function the satisfaction of a
range of stakeholders. This typically involves making a profit (for the
shareholders), creating valued products at a reasonable cost (for customers),
and providing rewarding employment opportunities for employees.
在以營利為目的的工作, 管理有其主要功能就是為了一定範圍內的利益相關者的滿意. 這通常涉及賺取利潤(為股東), 以合理的成本(為客戶)創造有價值的產品,
並為員工提供有價值的就業機會.
In nonprofit management, add the importance of keeping the faith of donors.
In most models of management and governance, shareholders vote for the board of
directors, and the board then hires senior management.
Some organizations have experimented with other methods (such as employee-voting
models) of selecting or reviewing managers, but this is rare.
在非營利組織管理, 則增加了維持忠於捐助者的執行重點. 在管理和治理的大多數模式理, 股東投票選出董事會, 而董事會則聘請高級管理人員.
有些組織已經嘗試了其他選擇或審查經理人的方法 (如員工投票模式), 但這是罕見的.
In the public sector of countries constituted as representative democracies,
voters elect politicians to public office. Such politicians hire many managers
and administrators, and in some countries like the United States political
appointees lose their jobs on the election of a new president/governor/mayor.
在由代議民主所組成的國家的公共部門, 選民選出的政治家擔任公職. 這樣的從政者, 聘請許多經理和管理人員.
而且在一些國家, 如美國政治任命官員, 在新總統/省長/市長的選舉後失去他們的工作.
Historical development 歷史發展
Difficulties arise in tracing the history of management.
Some see it (by definition) as a late modern (in the sense of late modernity)
conceptualization. On those terms it cannot have a pre-modern history, only
harbingers (such as stewards).
Others, however, detect management-like-thought back to Sumerian traders and to
the builders of the pyramids of ancient Egypt.
Slave-owners through the centuries faced the problems of exploiting/motivating a
dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many
pre-industrial enterprises, given their small scale, did not feel compelled to
face the issues of management systematically.
在追踪管理的歷史上出現了困難.
有一些將它視為(根據定義)晚現代(在晚期現代性的意義上)的概念化. 在這些方面, 它不能有一個前現代的歷史, 只有先驅者(如管家).
然而, 回朔到Sumerian貿易商和古埃及金字塔的建造者, 其他人發現像管理一樣的思想. 在數個世紀裏, 奴隸主面臨剝削/激勵其依賴者的問題,
但有是時缺乏熱情或頑抗的勞動力. 但很多工業前期的企業, 由於其規模小, 沒覺感受到面臨有系統地管理的問題的壓力.
However, innovations such as the spread of Hindu-Arabic numerals (5th to 15th
centuries) and the codification of double-entry book-keeping (1494) provided
tools for management assessment, planning and control.
Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized
record-keeping and recording before the industrial revolution, it made sense for
most owners of enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by
and for themselves.
But with growing size and complexity of organizations, the split between owners
(individuals, industrial dynasties or groups of shareholders) and day-to-day
managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually became more
common.
無論如何, 如阿拉伯數字(第5至15世紀)的傳播和編纂複式簿記(1494)等的創新, 提供了管理的評估, 規劃和控制的工具.
由於在工業革命之前, 大多數商業經營規模, 以及缺乏機械化記錄保存和錄音, 在那個時代, 對於企業的大多數業主, 由他們為他們自己執行管理功能是有意義的.
但隨著規模的成長和組織的複雜性, 業主(個人, 工業世代或股東群體)與日常復一日的經理者 (在計劃和控制方面的的獨立專家) 之間的分岐, 逐漸變得更加普遍.
Early writing 早期的著作
While management (according to some definitions) has existed for millennia,
several writers have created a background of works that assisted in modern
management theories.[5]
Some ancient military texts have been cited for lessons that civilian managers
can gather. For example, Chinese general Sun Tzu in the 6th century BC, The Art
of War, recommends being aware of and acting on strengths and weaknesses of both
a manager's organization and a foe's.[5] 雖然
管理(根據一些定義)已經存在了幾千年, 一些作家已經創建了一個輔助了現代管理理論的背景工作.
一些古代軍事文獻已經被引用為民營管理者可以收集的經驗教訓. 例如，中國將軍孫子在公元前6世紀的孫子兵法, 建議要知道,
且著力於經理人與敵人兩者組織的強項與弱點.
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